Rivaroxaban
CommercialOral Factor Xa anticoagulant (Xarelto®, Bayer/J&J) — blockbuster antithrombotic
Role of CDI: CDI is used to construct the central 2-oxo-1,3-oxazolidine (morpholinone-linked oxazolidinone) carbamate ring by cyclising a 1,2-amino alcohol intermediate.
Molecular formula
C₁₉H₁₈ClN₃O₅S
Structure (condensed)
ClC₄H₂S-C(=O)NH-CH₂-[oxazolidin-2-one]-CH₂-N(morpholin-3-one)-C₆H₄-
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2011, 15, 1192; WO 2004/060887 (Bayer).
Linezolid
CommercialOxazolidinone antibiotic (Zyvox®, Pfizer) for resistant Gram-positive infections
Role of CDI: CDI cyclises the (R)-3-fluoro-4-morpholinyl-anilino-1,2-diol to install the oxazolidin-2-one pharmacophore in commercial-scale process routes.
Molecular formula
C₁₆H₂₀FN₃O₄
Structure (condensed)
O=C₁OCH(CH₂NHAc)CN₁-C₆H₃F-N(morpholine)
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2016, 20, 1097; US 5,688,792 (Pharmacia).
Dabigatran etexilate
CommercialDirect thrombin inhibitor anticoagulant (Pradaxa®, Boehringer Ingelheim)
Role of CDI: CDI mediates amide coupling between the benzimidazole-acetic acid and the N-(2-pyridyl)-β-alanine ethyl ester fragment in the manufacturing route.
Molecular formula
C₃₄H₄₁N₇O₅
Structure (condensed)
EtOOC-CH₂CH₂-N(2-Py)-CO-CH₂-[benzimidazole]-C(=N-OCOOC₅H₁₁)(NH₂)
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2014, 18, 415; EP 0,648,771.
Lenalidomide / Pomalidomide
CommercialImmunomodulatory anticancer drugs (Revlimid®, Pomalyst®, Celgene/BMS) for multiple myeloma
Role of CDI: CDI activates glutamic-acid derivatives to close the glutarimide ring under mild conditions, replacing phosgene/triphosgene in commercial processes.
Molecular formula
C₁₃H₁₃N₃O₃ / C₁₃H₁₁N₃O₄
Structure (condensed)
[isoindolin-1-one]-N-CH(CH₂CH₂)-C(=O)NH-C(=O) glutarimide
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2018, 22, 1481; US 5,635,517.
Olmesartan medoxomil
CommercialAngiotensin-II receptor blocker (Benicar®, Daiichi Sankyo) — antihypertensive
Role of CDI: CDI activates the medoxomil (4-methyl-2-oxo-1,3-dioxol-4-yl)methyl carbonate prodrug ester onto the tetrazole-biphenyl-imidazole carboxylic acid.
Molecular formula
C₂₉H₃₀N₆O₆
Structure (condensed)
[medoxomil-CH₂O₂C]-[imidazole-C(OH)Me₂]-CH₂-C₆H₄-C₆H₄-[1H-tetrazol-5-yl]
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2007, 11, 921; EP 0,503,785.
Bilastine
CommercialSecond-generation H₁-antihistamine (Bilaxten®, Faes Farma)
Role of CDI: CDI couples 2-[4-(2-aminoethyl)phenyl]-2-methylpropanoic acid with the 2-ethoxy-benzimidazole-piperidine fragment in the API route.
Molecular formula
C₂₈H₃₇N₃O₃
Structure (condensed)
HOOC-C(Me)₂-C₆H₄-CH₂CH₂-N(piperidine)-CH-[2-EtO-benzimidazole]
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2015, 19, 1011; EP 0,818,454.
Apixaban
CommercialFactor Xa inhibitor anticoagulant (Eliquis®, BMS/Pfizer)
Role of CDI: CDI enables the lactam carbamoyl coupling forming the 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-c]pyridine carboxamide on multi-ton manufacture.
Molecular formula
C₂₅H₂₅N₅O₄
Structure (condensed)
H₂NOC-[pyrazolo-pyridinone]-N-C₆H₄-N(morpholin-3-on-4-yl)-C₆H₄-OMe
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2014, 18, 1714; US 6,967,208.
Ezetimibe
CommercialCholesterol-absorption inhibitor (Zetia®, Merck)
Role of CDI: CDI activates the (S)-3-hydroxy-3-(4-fluorophenyl)propanoic acid for stereoselective β-lactam formation in commercial routes.
Molecular formula
C₂₄H₂₁F₂NO₃
Structure (condensed)
[β-lactam]-N(4-F-C₆H₄)-CH(4-F-C₆H₄)-CH₂CH₂-CH(OH)-C₆H₄-OH
Reference: Org. Process Res. Dev. 2017, 21, 1857; US 5,767,115.
Polyurethane / Polycarbonate prepolymers
CommercialPhosgene-free industrial polymers, coatings & medical-grade resins
Role of CDI: CDI is the leading non-phosgene carbonyl source for chain-extension of diols/diamines, producing aliphatic polycarbonates and polyureas at ton scale.
Molecular formula
[–O–C(=O)–O–]ₙ / [–NH–C(=O)–NH–]ₙ
Structure (condensed)
HO-R-O-C(=O)-O-R-OH … (CDI + diol → cyclic / linear carbonate)
Reference: Green Chem. 2019, 21, 2952; Macromolecules 2020, 53, 8845.
CDI core reactivity
1,1′-Carbonyldiimidazole reacts with carboxylic acids to form acyl imidazolides (R–C(=O)–Im), with alcohols to form imidazole carbamates / carbonates, and with amines to form ureas and isocyanates. Imidazole is the only by-product, making CDI a green, safe substitute for phosgene, COCl₂, triphosgene and acid chlorides at commercial scale.
Im–C(=O)–Im + R–COOH → R–C(=O)–Im + CO₂ + ImH
Im–C(=O)–Im + R–OH → R–O–C(=O)–Im + ImH
Im–C(=O)–Im + R–NH₂ → R–NH–C(=O)–Im + ImH